Standards of Learning

Locate the Standards of Learning (SOL) for your content and grade level(s) at the Virginia Department of Education web site listed below. The Standards of Learning is the minimum content of what you will be teaching. How useful will these standards be in your lesson/unit planning? How will you use these standards to enhance students' opportunity to learn and lead to higher student achievement?

            I will be certified to teach Math 6-12, but Algebra is my true love and the class I’d love to teach so I decided to focus on those SOL guidelines. I don’t have any children, but I did tutor students for a semester a few years ago so I have had limited exposure to the SOL guidelines.  I knew that teachers had to focus on teaching those standards but I didn’t know how specifically it was set up.

            According to the Virginia Department of Education (n.d.) the Standards of Learning “establish minimum expectations for what students should know and be able to do at the end of each grade or course in English, mathematics, science, history/social science, technology, the fine arts, foreign language, health/physical education and driver education.” This serves as a guideline for student and teacher expectations.

            I think the SOL’s will be critical for planning my lessons and units. The Virginia Department of Education gives you a list of standards as well as the curriculum framework.

The Mathematics Standards of Learning for Virginia Public Schools lists the sections that must be covered for Algebra I, such as Equations and Inequalities and Functions as well as the units, such as “The student will solve multistep linear and quadratic equations in two variables” under the Equations and Inequalities section (“Mathematics Standards of Learning for Virginia Public Schools,” 2009). As a teacher this will be very useful for me to see where I need to take the class in terms of their learning.

            The Curriculum Framework provides a list of essential understandings and essential knowledge and skills (“Mathematics Standards of Learning Curriculum Framework,” 2009). For example for the topic Equations and Inequalities the students must understand that “A solution to an equation is the value or set of values that can be substituted to make the equation true. “ and must be able to “solve a literal equation (formula) for a specified variable” (“Mathematics Standards of Learning Curriculum Framework,” 2009).

            One of the things I like about the SOL curriculum framework is that it clearly spells out what the students need to know and be able to do. One of my worries as a new teacher is that I will have a lack of direction for my students and not prepare them properly for future classes. By following the SOL’s I have a direction already planned out and I know on what topics to focus my attention on. It gives me the clear overall goals for the year as well as smaller goals while allowing me the discretion of how long to spend on each topic and how I should teach it.  

            The downside of course to using the SOL curriculum framework is that it leaves little flexibility for teachers. As a teacher I will have to carefully budget my time not just during class but also throughout the year to make sure that all topics are covered and that the students understand them. This takes away my flexibility in teaching. I realize that in a subject like math it is not typical for students to want to discuss something that may branch off of what is being discussed but I could see this being a bigger problem in other classrooms, especially in history and science. As a math teacher I don’t think I’ll have to worry about tangents, my biggest issue will be moving along at the pace required to get through all the material. I want to ensure that my students understand the material and sometimes that means covering a topic for a longer period of time or starting a topic over using a new method to reach the students. I don’t want my students to get lost in my teaching because I’m adhering to too strict of a timetable.

            To help my students learn and gain high achievement I would use the SOL curriculum framework to ensure that I am hitting all the critical areas in my subject matter, as listed. By focusing on the standards I will be ensuring that my students are ready for the next level of classes. I think one of the keys to making the SOL’s work is for me to properly assess my students and their needs so that I can use teaching methods that work best for my students. I also hope that I am able to take my class beyond what is stated in the SOL curriculum. The SOL guidelines provide the minimum expectations for students (Virginia Department of Education, n.d.). I do not want my students to just succeed at the minimum requirements but succeed in all they do.

Works Cited

Mathematics Standards of Learning Curriculum Framework. (n.d.). VDOE: Virginia Department of Education. Retrieved January 25, 2013, from www.doe.virginia.gov/testing/sol/frameworks/mathematics_framewks/2009/framewk_algebra1.pdf

Mathematics Standards of Learning for Virginia Public Schools – February 2009. (n.d.). VDOE: Virginia Department of Education. Retrieved January 25, 2013, from www.doe.virginia.gov/testing/sol/standards_docs/mathematics/2009/stds_algebra_1.pdf

VDOE: Standards of Learning (SOL) and Testing. (n.d.). VDOE: Virginia Department of Education. Retrieved January 25, 2013, from http://www.doe.virginia.gov/testing/ 

Classroom Environment

Part A: Building a Classroom Management System - Creating Environment

What do all of these "voices from the classroom" advise about what a well-managed classroom looks like?

While students are different and have different expectations in the classroom there are many common things that each student is looking for (or not looking for) in the classroom.  I think the overall theme is that students want to be treated with respect and treated more as an adult than a child.

One of the first things mentioned by Cushman (2003) is that students recognize and dislike condescension.  Students don’t like when teachers try too hard to relate to students or pretend to understand what they are going through (Cushman, 2003, p 1). Even as adults we sometimes come across someone with a condescending attitude and I can understand why students don’t appreciate it.

Students also want the teacher to know who they are, not just their name and grade. Students also seem to appreciate a beginning of the year questionnaire that allows them to give the teacher some insight into their life as well as express concerns for the upcoming year (Cushman, 2003, p2,4). Tiffany (Cushman, 2003) said “In history the first day my teacher passed out a paper with a couple of questions about how you learn – like: what type of issues do you have with history, do you like it? That was the first time a teacher seemed to actually care about how a student learns, so she could meet their needs” (p5). I never really thought before how important student input can be to the planning process. By asking that question and compiling answers I can better meet the needs of my students.

There are many things that students advise about well-managed classrooms but respect is the most important. “Students say that if a teacher sets a steady example of fairness and respect, they respond positively whether or not they like a teacher personally” (Cushman, 2003, p17). I think it is so important to set a level of respect in the classroom that goes both ways. Respect is more than just treating your students respectfully but also showing them respect by pushing them to be better. As mentioned by Alexis (Cushman, 2003) they had a track coach that let the students dictate what they would and wouldn’t do at practice, and while the students loved him, they never won any meets. Their new coach did not let the students dictate the practice and pushed them to be better and they started winning meets (p17). This new coach may not have been as well liked and as fun as the old coach but he had the respect that the old coach did not.

What does an effective classroom instructor know and what type of environment does an effectively managed classroom create?  Be specific.

            The most important thing for an instructor to know is that they must “mean business” from day one. They must make it clear to students that they expect students to behave and learn in their classroom (Jones, 2007, p5). An effective classroom instructor is also aware of problem areas such as goofing off, squandered time and passivity and what they can do about it (Jones, 2007, p6-7). One thing that effective instructors know how to do is to effectively arrange the classroom to limit or prevent goofing off. This means having the ability to get to any students within only a few steps (Jones, 2007, p17). They also employ the practice of “Praise, Prompt and Leave” (Jones, 2007, p18). Praise, Prompt and Leave is a technique used by teachers for those students that need help during guided practice. It helps them to quickly move on so that they are not leaving the rest of the class “unattended” for too long (Jones, 2007, p18).

            Another thing that effective instructors know is the value and application of discipline. Without discipline the classroom will turn to chaos. It’s important for students to understand that you mean business.  Meaning business is “a combination of calm, commitment, and utter consistency that taught the students that ‘no’ always means ‘no’ and that consequences would always be delivered’ (Jones, 2007, p20). They also know how to train students to be responsible for completing their work and they are able to work with students who are going out of their way to buck the system (Jones, 2007, p20).

            An effective instructor also knows how to motivate their students and know how to help students build a good work ethic (Jones, 2007, p22). Cushman (2003) says “If teachers know more about what their students care about, it’s easier to motivate them, by connecting academic work to their existing interests (p13). If a teacher knows her students and can relate material to what they already enjoy the students will be able to better understand the topic and be more likely to want to know more about it.

            An effectively managed classroom will create an environment that makes both teaching and learning a success for the teacher and students. It will be a mutually respectful classroom and a classroom where students will not be afraid to pose questions or comments to the teacher. The environment will be one where students are able to learn and learn effectively because there will be less distractions that prevent learning. I think it’ll also be the kind of classroom that can have more “fun” activities. If students are staying on task then the teacher does not have to repeat tasks or wait for the class to clam down and they can move through the “boring” activities faster to get to the “fun” ones. The environment will also be one that motivates students to do better and be better.

            An effectively managed classroom will create an environment for the teacher that is more relaxed and less stressful. If the students know the rules and follow them the teacher can then focus on the lesson instead of monitoring students behavior. A more relaxed teacher also benefits the students because they recognize when a teacher is stressed or frustrated and often times that leads to more frustrations and stress for the teacher.  

Part B: Building a Classroom Management System - Day One and Beyond 

What will you do before Day One to make Day One effective?

As a new teacher there are many things I will do before Day One to make Day One effective for me. One of the first things I will do is look at my room arrangement. According to Jones (2007) “the biggest single variable that governs the likelihood of students goofing off in your class is their physical distance from you (p137). I will make sure that I have walkways so that I can easily move around the room and be able to move from student to student without too many steps (Jones, 2007, p138). Jones (2007) recommends using “tape dots” on the floor to prevent desk creep and requiring students to “straighten up” between activities to keep desks in place (p138). I would also plan a seating chart for all my classes. I would probably start with your standard A to Z.

I would also work on devising classroom rules and procedures. I would like to get some input from the students on the first day, but I would like to a list ready to go for the first day of school. Rules are very important to the success of the classroom.

           

What are 3-5 initiatives you will take to be proactive in your classroom on Day One and why?

There are many things you can do as a new (or old) teacher to be proactive on Day One. I think greeting the students as they enter the classroom is very important. I want to set a positive, friendly tone in the classroom and greeting the students is one way to do that. By greeting the students in the doorway I am setting the tone that the classroom is a work environment not a socializing environment (Jones, 2007, p138).

One thing I will definitely implement in my classroom is bell work (Jones, 2007, p139). When I was volunteering at a middle school two of the teachers had bell work for the students and it was amazing the difference it made in the classroom. I worked with three different teachers and when I was working with the teacher that did not utilize bell work it was very frustrating and difficult to get the attention of the students. 

I would also be proactive about rules in the classroom. According to Jones (2007) “research has repeatedly shown that teachers with the best run classrooms spend most of the first two weeks of the semester teaching their procedures and routines” (p147). He also goes on to state that few teachers make the investment to do this, especially as the students get older (Jones, 2007, p147). When I think back to high school in most classes we only spent a few minutes on the first day going over rules, and I never really paid much attention to them. I would like to take the extra time to work on the rules and procedures with my students, which will hopefully lead to a better-run classroom.

What do you want students to know from Day One about you, and what do you want to know from Day One about them.   How will this communication occur?

            When I was a student I always wanted to know more about my teachers than the standard “I teach Math because…” and that was it. As I introduce myself I would say where I am from, where I went to school, what my hobbies are, etc, and ask them if they had any specific questions they wanted to ask me.

            For getting to know my students I would use a questionnaire as suggested by Cushman (2003, p9). I don’t remember doing those in high school, but I do remember a few in college and it was always a nice surprise when a professor acknowledged something that I wrote on my card. I would also like to use the questionnaire to get any questions or concerns that students might have about the class. Math skills vary widely and I would like to get a feel for what they are thinking about the particular math they are taking (algebra, geometry, etc). I would also have the students verbally introduce themselves to me and the class by saying there name and an interesting fact.

Would you want to read the information available about students with IEP/504 plans prior to day one - why or why not?  Will this information impact classroom management/instructional decisions?

            I would definitely want to read the information available about students with IEP/504 plans prior to day one. Knowing that a child has a IEP/504 plan will impact the structure of the classroom as I will have to make some accommodations for those students. According to the US Department of Education (2010) a student with a 504 plan “may comprise education in regular classes, education in regular classes with the use of related aids and services, or special education and related services in separate classrooms for all or portions of the school day” (section 3). As a teacher I must be aware if a student will be allowed to take their test in a different room or they are allowed extra time for a test or whatever extra assistance they will need.

            An IEP “is designed for one student and must be a truly individualized document” (US Department of Education, 2000). It creates an opportunity for educators and parents to work together to improve the educational experience of students with disabilities (US Department of Education, 2000). As a teacher if I have a student who has an IEP it is critical that I am involved with the plans for that student, including being prepared for the first day of class.

            If I did not look at these plans prior to the school year beginning I would be doing that student and the class a disservice.

Works Cited

Archived: Guide to the individualized education program. (2000). U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved January 26, 2013, from http://ed.gov/parents/needs/speced/iepguide/index.html

Cushman, K. (2003). Fires in the bathroom: advice for teachers from high school students. New York: New Press.

Free appropriate public education under section 504. (1999, revised 2010). U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved January 26, 2013, from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/edlite-FAPE504.html

Jones, F. H., Jones, P., & Jones, J. L. (2007). Tools for teaching: discipline, instruction, motivation (2nd ed.). Santa Cruz, CA: F.H. Jones & Associates.

Maslow & Piaget

How do Piaget's Theory of Developmental Needs and Maslow's Theory of Hierarchy of needs each help you understand student needs and aid you in skillfully guiding learning experiences? 

I think both Piaget’s Theory of Developmental Needs and Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchy of Needs play a big role in understanding the needs of the students. Piaget’s Theory of Developmental Needs helps to explain the stages of development at approximate ages. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs explains the students learn needs in relation to other needs that may affect learning.

Piaget

Piaget’s Theory of Developmental Needs focuses on children and their stages of cognitive development. He defines four different stages: Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete Operational and Formal Operational (Huitt, 2003). Children in middle school and high school fall into the Concrete Operational and the Formal Operational stages. In the Concrete Operational stage “intelligence is demonstarted [sic] through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects” (Huitt, 2003). The Formal Operational stage is “demonstrated though the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts” (Huitt, 2003). According to Huitt (2003) only 35% of high school graduates get to the Formal Operational stage. It does not appear that individuals automatically move from the Concrete Operational stage to the Formal Operational stage based on biological development, a special environment ins needed for most individuals to attain Formal Operations (Huitt, 2003).

It’s important to understand all the stages of development when teaching and to recognize where your students fit. Most students in secondary school will fit into the Concrete Operational stage so it’s important to develop lessons that rely on concrete objects and symbols. As the students get older and continue on in their education the lessons should become more abstract. As a teacher you want to know where your students are in their developmental needs because you don’t want to teach down to your students (i.e. expecting a senior class to be satisfied with a lesson on memorizing the times tables) but you also don’t want to teach over your students heads (expecting a sixth grades class to understand graphing on an x-y-z plane).

Maslow

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs focuses on what you need as a person. There are eight total levels to Maslow’s Hierarchy, broken into two different groups. The first group of needs are deficiency needs. These are the basic needs in life and each level must be met before moving on to the next (Huitt, 2007). The levels are (from bottom to top): Physiological Needs, Safety Needs, Belongingness and Love Needs and Esteem Needs (Huitt, 2007). The second group of needs are growth needs. The levels are (from bottom to top): Cognitive (the need to know and understand), Aesthetic, Self Actualization and Self Transcendence (Huitt, 2007). Individuals progress up the levels as they go through life and any “information that is not diretly connected to helping a person meet his or her needs in a very short time span is simply left unattended” (Huitt, 2007). For example, if an individual is worried about where they are going to sleep that night they are not going to be worrying about fitting in and being loved. Before they can worry about staying safe, being loved, or learning they must have a place to stay.

It’s important to be aware of these needs in the classroom. While I’d like to think that each student is always at the Cognitive or Aesthetic stage of needs I know that that is not the case. Students have many worries that can range from fitting in at school to not having enough food at home. It’s critical to know where your students stand so that you can better help them (or at the very least have an idea of what the problem might be). While Physiological and Safety Needs are generally not needs that teachers can influence I think that teachers can influence Belongingness and Esteem. I feel that the primary influence for these two levels should come from outside the school however if a child has a deficiency at these levels a teacher should work with the student to see that these needs are being met.

Both Piaget’s and Maslow’s theories have an important influence on teachers today. It’s important to take into consideration the needs of the student outside just the content that will be taught. That will help make students more successful in all areas of life.

Picture a classroom of 25 students in a subject/grade level you would like to teach. How does this knowledge of these needs affect how you see these students and plan to teach them effectively?

After considering Piaget’s theory I would make sure to take into consideration the levels of my
students. As I would like to teach Algebra that puts me in the 8^th and 9^th grade range which means that my students would be primarily at the Concrete Operational stage, though some could be moving into the Formal Operational stage. I would make sure to concentrate on the concrete concepts, but still leaving a little bit of room in the lesson plan for abstract concepts as well. Huitt (2003) recommends “that parents and teachers challenge the child’s abilities, but NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child’s level.” I couldn’t agree more with this statement. I want to challenge my students to be better and to think a bit beyond, but I don’t want them to be overwhelmed buy topics they aren’t ready to get into yet.

Maslow’s theory is harder to consider because the basic needs aren’t needs that I have a lot of control over. Should I notice any deficiencies in the basic needs I will do what I can to help the student overcome them. The Cognitive and Aesthetic levels of Maslow’s theory are the two levels I would have the most influence in as well as putting them on the path to Self Actualization and Self Transcendence. My focus for the class overall would probably be on content and applications but the real goal in mind should be to help the student realize their own potential of what they can do. I know for me the teachers who pushed a little harder and expected a little more got better results from me, and helped me realize that with a little hard work I can do anything I want. I want to be that kind of teacher. I don’t want to just stand in front of the classroom and lecture and have that be the that. I want to take the struggling student and help them be successful and I want to take the already successful student and show them that there is still more that they can do.

I think there are two other things to take into consideration here. First, it’s important for teachers to remember that each class is going to be different, even in the same grade at the same school and what works for one might not work for another. Second, socioeconomic status plays a big part in classrooms today. You are much more likely to find kids struggling with the basic needs in Maslow’s theory in an inner city than out in the suburbs. Identifying where my students stand will help to make me a better teacher.

Works Cited

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved January 20, 2013 from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/piaget.html 
Huitt, W. (2007). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved January 20, 2013 from, http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/regsys/maslow.html

Art and Science of Teaching

Read chapter one of Classroom Instruction That Works. What do you need to understand about both the science and the art of teaching to be an effective teacher?

Teachers need to understand that teaching is both an art and a science. You need to know the science behind teaching to be an effective teacher. This not only includes knowing current instructional strategies but also keeping up to date on new strategies. You need to keep up to date on educational studies and how children are impacted. As a teacher you should be giving high consideration for those strategies that have been proven effective amongst students. It’s also important to know that there are factors that you will have no control over such as “the students natural ability or aptitude, the socioeconomic status of the student, and the student’s home environment.” (Marzano, Pickering and Pollock, 2001, p 2). These things must be taken into consideration while deciding on which instructional strategies should be used in your classroom.

Teaching is also an art. Every child is different and must be treated as such. Teachers need to be flexible and be able to change the teaching methods to better suit the students at hand. In a study done by James Coleman and Christopher Jencks, presented in Classroom Instruction That Works (Marzano et al., 2001), it was found that “an individual teacher can have a powerful effect on her students even if the school doesn’t” (p 2). I think this is very important for teachers to know and understand. You can do all the research and plan all the lessons, but if you can’t connect with the students and adapt to them you aren’t making as big of a difference in their education.

Reflect on and summarize two of the learning theories discussed in the above links. As a teacher with experience and knowledge, you will develop your own personal theory of learning that will complement your own personal philosophy of teaching.

            I think teaching is a blending of different learning theories and it’s important for teachers to learn about the different theories and incorporate them into the classroom. Behaviorism and Cognitivism are just two of several teaching theories out there.

            Behaviorism “assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli” (“Behaviorism,” n.d.). The teacher will use positive and negative reinforcement to mold the student’s behavior (“Behaviorism,” n.d). For example if a student completes a set of problems correctly they are rewarded (positive reinforcement) with an A or an extra five minutes at recess. If a student completes a set of problems incorrectly, or not at all, the student will be “rewarded” with an F or perhaps they will have to stay inside during recess. 

            According to Mike Smith (1999a) there are three key assumptions to behaviorist learning: The focus of study is the observable behavior, not the thought process, the environment determines what the student learns, and the reinforcement and time between events are key to the learning process (Smith, 1999a).  To get the best out of positive and negative reinforcement the reinforcement should occur close to the event, the further away from the event you give the reinforcement (positive or negative) the less impact it has. Take a student who misbehaves in class. If you wait until the end of the day to discuss the issue of misbehavior they might not understand specifically what they were doing wrong and/or may feel that because you didn’t address the issue until well after it happened that it must not be the important him/her to correct their behavior. However if you call the student on his misbehavior at the time of the occurrence and give reinforcement they will associate that “punishment” with their bad behavior.

            I think behaviorism is an important theory to consider when teaching, but it would work best in combination with other theories. I think for establishing classroom rules and behaviors behaviorism theory can play an important role. I also think it’s important to use reward methods to motivate students and keep them informed about their progress. The problem that I see with using a behaviorism only theory is that is doesn’t take into consideration individual students or the thought process by which students come to their conclusions. Each student is unique and a reward that might work for one student may not work for another. When I was in high school getting an A on a test or project or report card was enough motivation for me to do well. My brother however was not motivated be the possibility of getting an A, he was motivated by the ability to participate in sports. The same reward method would not work for the both of us, because we are two different people.

            The other issue is that behaviorism works with cut and dry answers. Everything is black and white, however there is a lot of grey in education. Behaviorism focuses on the answer to the question, not in how you got there. The thought process for getting an answer to a question or writing a paper or whatever you are doing in class is just as important as getting the correct answer. If you are taking a multiple choice test and you get a 90% that doesn’t mean that you actually knew 90% of the answers, you could have guessed correctly on a couple of questions. As a teacher, if I don’t delve into the thought process of how the student got the answer then I’m not doing my job as a teacher.

            As defined by learning-theories.com “Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing and problem-solving need to be explored.” (“Cognitivism,” n.d.) As a contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism is about the process as much as it is about the answer. Cognitivisim was developed because many psychologists believed that behaviorism focused too much on single events and results (Smith, 1999b). “Where behaviourists looked to the environment, those drawing on Gestalt turned to the individual’s mental processes. In other words, they were concerned with cognition – the act of process of knowing.” (Smith 199b). There are several implications to cognitive theory. Learning is influenced by cognitive processes (Cunia, n.d.). Children become capable of increasingly more advanced thought as they get older (Cunia, n.d.). When students can associate something new with the knowledge they already have it’s easier to learn (Cunia, n.d.).

I like that cognitivism is focused not just on the end result but the why and how as well. It’s so easy for students to learn, memorize and regurgitate information for a test. Breaking down lessons and having students become active participants in the learning process will create long lasting lessons for the students. I think this leads to great class discussions as well as an increase of peer to peer learning. I also like that it builds on information that has been previously learned. This helps students to make the material “easier” and it also helps to reinforce what they have previously learned.

I think cognitivism is a more realistic theory for today’s world that behaviorism, but I still feel that a blending of instructional theories will be beneficial for the students and the teacher. Every student is unique and different methods of instruction must be explored to find the one that works for the students and the teacher.

Based on research and reading to this point what is your personal learning style and why?

            Like most people I think a blended style would be my personal learning style. Different subjects require a different way of learning, however if I were to just select one learning style that is most like me I would say behaviorism. In today’s world I’m sure that’s not a common choice but when I think back to high school and college the classes that I’ve always done well in are the classes that are very structured, with clear cut answers, and grades are my reward or my downfall (both from teachers and from my parents when I was in high school). I like a system that has positive and negative reinforcement because I always know what to expect. 

Works Cited

Behaviorism. (n.d.). Learning theories. Retrieved January 17, 2013, from http://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html

Cognitivism. (n.d.). Learning theories. Retrieved January 18, 2013, from http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html

Cunia, E. (n.d.). Cognitive learning theory - web quest. Erin C. Barrett Cunia, Instructional Web Designer. Retrieved January 18, 2013, from http://erincunia.com/portfolio/MSportfolio/ide621/ide621f03production/cognitive.htm

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Smith, M. K. (1999a.). The behaviourist orientation to learning. The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved January 18, 2013, from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm

Smith, M. K. (1999b). The cognitive orientation to learning. The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved January 18, 2013, from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.htm